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Scan 136
The New Encyclopedia Of Music And Musicians, 1929
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1tomary to designate pitches by means of letter-names, at first taking a as the assumed tone of reference and using the series a, b, c, d, e, f, g. The absolute pitch of a doubtless fluctuated widely in practice, but the relative pitches of tones with reference to it could be estimated with some accuracy. In modern usage, the common tone of reference is c (usually that c known as middle c), but for certain precise purposes a is also used. At any period the pitch-relations of tones called by particular letter-names depend upon the theory or practice of tuning adopted. Thus until the 16th century the Pythagorean tuning of major thirds and sixths was so much in vogue that it delayed the acceptance of their modern values and the recognition of the triads now fundamental to harmonic theory. Thus at present the theoretic pitch of tones in their interval-relations is computed in just or pure intonation, while their practical use is widely carried on in tempered intonation. Pitch, then, is not only either absolute or relative, but also either theoretic or practical. G.
3For purposes of reference, it has long been customary to use a system of pitches derived from the organ-keyboard. In this the second c below middle-c is called C or 8-foot c and all tones in the octave above by similar names, constituting the great, first or 8-foot octave; the next c below middle-c is called c or 4-foot c and its octave the small, second or 4-foot octave; middle-c is called c1 or 2-foot c and its octave the once-accented, third or 2-foot octave; the next c above middle-c is called c2 or 1-foot c and its octave the twice-accented, fourth or 1-foot octave; etc. This system is extended downward by calling the third c below middle-c C, or CC and the fourth c C: or CCC. Sometimes instead of superior and inferior figures accents above or below are used, and sometimes horizontal lines above or below.
5In the present volume, middle-c is called c (with all pitches in the octave above), the next c below is called c1 and the next c above c1, etc. (in each case with the octaves above). This makes clear the relation to the tone of reference.
7In acoustical discussions more elaborate systems of pitch-designation are used, as by A. J. Ellis in his translation of Helmholtz' Tonempfindungen or by Riemann in various manuals.
9Absolute pitch can always be stated by giving the vibration-number of the tone in view. The assumed pitch of middle-c is often put at 261 (German usage) or 256 (English usage). The former is deduced from a standard adopted by a congress of physicists at Stuttgart in 1834, when, on Scheibler's suggestion, a = 440 was thought desirable (hence called the Stuttgart or Scheibler's pitch). The latter is often called the philosophical pitch, because 256 represents the eighth octave above a hypothetical tone with but one vibration per second.
11The actual pitch of musical instruments and performances is known to have varied greatly at different periods and may differ at any time in particular cases. In 1859 the French diapason normal of a = 435 (at 59° Fahr.) was adopted by a governmental commission and made legal. This has been generally taken elsewhere as standard (often called French or international pitch). But for a time it was so much below the standard of usage that it was called low pitch in distinction from concert-pitch or high pitch (orchestras then using a = 450–455). Investigation shows that in the early 18th century the usual pitch was as low as a = 405–415, low pitch then being Chorton as opposed to Kammerton or high pitch. The question of actual pitch is of importance not only as regards the convenience of vocalists, but as regards the tuning of instruments generally, particularly those of fixed intonation (like the piano and the organ).
13In many wind-instruments the members of a particular group or family are named by the pitch of the fundamental tone of the tube, as a cornet in b-flat or a b-flat cornet. In some cases an instrument can be set in different pitches by adjusting movable crooks. In either case the instrument is said to be pitched in such and such a key. In unaccompanied vocal music some pitch must be assumed at the outset, whether the one indicated or another. This process is giving, taking or setting the pitch, and the piece is then said to be pitched in this or that key. Similarly a piano or an organ may be pitched high or low as well as by standard or French pitch.
15The two instruments most used for fixing pitch for tuning instruments or for singing are the tuning-fork and the pitch-pipe. The former gives but one tone; the latter may be made to give one or more than one.
17Pizzicato. See Terms of Performance. G.
19Plagal. See Authentic, Gregorian Music and Cadence. G.
21Plain-Chant, Plain-Song. Same as Gregorian music. G.
23Plaint. See Lament.
25Plantation. In organ-making, the method used in arranging the pipes of a stop upon the wind-chest.
27It is always in a straight line or a narrow zig-zag, but in old instruments the series ran from the largest pipe to the smallest, whereas in modern instruments the largest is at one end, the next largest at the other end and so on alternately, so that the small pipes are in the middle. This distributes the weight better.
29Player-Piano. See Automatic Appliances.
31Plectrum. Any hard substance, like wood, ivory, shell or metal, held in the fingers or hand or fastened in any way to a finger, by which the strings of instruments of the lute-, harp- or zither-classes are sounded by plucking or twanging. G.
33Most plectra are small and light, but that of the Japanese samisen is an ivory-tipped wooden wedge nearly 10 in. long.
35Plectra serve both to save the wear on the finger-tips by direct playing and to produce a keener and louder tone.
37Pneuma. Same as jubilatio. Also sometimes a variant form for neume. G.
39Pneumatic. Denoting an instrument that is sounded or played upon by means of the breath or air artificially compressed, that is, any wind-instrument. G.
41In organ-making, extensive use is made of a pneumatic action, often of great extent and complexity. The essential principle of this is that if a small diagonal bellows is placed in a chamber filled with compressed air, it will instantly collapse if its vent be opened and, as it collapses, its movable side may be used to exert energy or pull. Such a collapsible bellows is called a pneumatic. An early application of pneumatics was to relieve the excessive strain of playing on the manual-keyboards when these were connected with the valves by direct tracker- and lever-action. With a pneumatic interposed, the key simply opens the vent in the appropriate bellows and the necessary force is exerted by air-pressure. The same principle is now employed for the stop and coupler-action. To increase efficiency, pneumatics are often arranged in series, one of small size starting one larger and so on, until one large enough to effect the result is put in operation. The almost inconceivable rapidity and certainty of the mechanism are due to the properties of air as a gas. The same principle is used in the action of automatic players of all sorts, though usually it is reversed, the pneumatic standing in a vacuum.
43Another form of pneumatic action is the tubular, in which operating a key or stop-knob by means of valves exhausts or compresses the air at one end of a slender metal-tube, resulting in a corresponding action at the other end of the tube, wherever it is. This uses air as a
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